delivered the opinion of the court:
A jury found the defendant, Donald Armstrong, guilty of five counts of first degree murder, and one count each of armed robbery, residential burglary and burglary, in connection with the death of Marion Smigiel. The same jury found the defendant eligible for the death penalty and that no mitigating circumstances existed sufficient *138to preclude imposition of that sentence. The circuit court entered judgment on the jury’s finding and sentenced the defendant to death.1 The defendant’s sentence has been stayed pending direct review by this court. Ill. Const. 1970, art. VI, § 4(b); 134 Ill. 2d Rs. 603, 609(a). In this appeal, the defendant raises 25 issues challenging his conviction and death sentence. We affirm in all respects.
I
At the time of her death, 86-year-old Marion Smigiel stood 5 feet 4 inches tall and weighed 123 pounds. She lived in an apartment building which she owned at 4301 West Haddon in Chicago. Stooped over and arthritic, Smigiel walked with a metal cane, but nonetheless managed to collect her tenants’ trash, which she would carry to the garage each evening. On the morning of February 4, 1992, police found Smigiel’s body lying in a pool of blood on the floor of her garage. Her skull had been smashed into several pieces leaving a gaping hole in her head measuring 5 inches by 2V2 inches. Lying next to Smigiel’s body was her metal cane — broken in two— along with several bags of trash.
Police found the door to Smigiel’s apartment ajar, although there were no signs of forced entry. The bedroom had been ransacked: the mattress was upended, someone had gone through the dresser drawers, and a television set was missing. In the living room, a desk had been rifled through, although a social security check and $1,580 in cash were still in a desk drawer.
After speaking with tenants in the building, police began looking for Richard Makowski, another building tenant. Makowski was known to have had almost daily arguments with the victim and was suspected of stealing *139money from her in the past. Police found Makowski hiding on a third-floor landing in the building and took him to the police station for questioning. Makowski was released after the initial questioning, but was later arrested and charged with the murder of Marion Smigiel.2
The crime went unsolved for several months. No identifiable fingerprints, other than the victim’s, were found at the crime scene or at the apartment. Five months after the death of Marion Smigiel, police began looking for the defendant, Donald Armstrong, in connection with an unrelated incident. The defendant reportedly had gotten into some sort of an altercation with his cousin Lamark Odell and Lamark’s father, Noba Odell. The Odells told police that they had some information regarding a homicide. The defendant was arrested in connection with the altercation with the Odells.
Lamark Odell told police that six months earlier, the defendant approached him on the street. The defendant asked him for money and explained that he had to leave town because he had killed an old lady in a garage near Division and Kostner after she refused to give him money. The defendant told Odell that he had gained $50 from the incident.
After speaking to the Odells, the police began to investigate the defendant’s connection to the murder of Marion Smigiel. The defendant’s brother, Ronald Armstrong, told police that he and the defendant knew Richard Makowski, and that the three of them had been drinking one evening in January in Makowski’s apartment. Makowski told them how he had stolen money from his landlady, and that she always had money around the third of each month after collecting her tenants’ rent. *140Ronald Armstrong told police that Makowski and the defendant then discussed robbing the old woman and decided to do so on February 3. Ronald Armstrong said that on February 3 the defendant came home with a television set, which he later sold for $50 to his older brother, Anthony Patrick. The defendant told Ronald Armstrong that he took the television set from the home of the woman he had killed. The defendant then, according to Ronald, left town.
The police then spoke with the defendant’s brother Anthony Patrick. Patrick explained that he had bought a television set from the defendant for $50 on the night of February 3. The defendant initially told Patrick that he had taken the television from someone who owed him drug money. Later the defendant told Patrick that he had gotten the television set from a woman that he had killed. The defendant told Patrick that he had beaten the woman on the head with a cane because he thought she had some money. She was screaming as he hit her. Patrick told police how he had removed the serial number from the back of the television, and he gave them the television. At the station, the police located the serial number on the inside chassis of the television, which matched the serial number on a television carton found in Marion Smigiel’s garage.
The police interviewed the defendant after advising him of his rights. The defendant stated that he understood his rights and agreed to speak to police about Smigiel’s death. The police subsequently placed the defendant under arrest for the death of Marion Smigiel. After again being advised of his rights, including the right to remain silent and the right to counsel, the defendant chose to make a court-reported statement. The defendant stated that he and Makowski spoke in early January about robbing Makowski’s landlady. Makowski explained that the lady was old and collected rents *141around the third of every month. At the end of January, the defendant and Makowski spoke again about robbing the landlady. Together, Makowski and the defendant concocted a scheme which called for the defendant to knock on the landlady’s door and to pretend to be interested in renting an apartment. The defendant was then to push his way into her apartment and to let Makowski in the back door. The defendant and Makowski agreed to execute their plan on February 3.
The defendant stated that late in the afternoon on February 3, the defendant went to Makowski’s building. He noticed Smigiel in the garage putting some garbage away; Makowski was standing on the back porch. The defendant entered the garage, shut the door and told Smigiel that he “was a dope fiend and wanted her money.” Smigiel began to scream. Makowski yelled from the back porch, “Make that bitch be quiet.” The defendant took Smigiel’s cane from her and struck her with it. Smigiel continued to scream. Makowski yelled again, “Make that bitch be quiet before someone hear [sic] her.” The defendant then hit Smigiel in the head with the cane several more times. The defendant could not recall how many times he struck Smigiel before the cane broke on the last blow and Smigiel fell to the ground.
The defendant then explained that he and Makowski entered Smigiel’s apartment and searched for money. Not finding any, the defendant and Makowski took Smigiel’s television. The defendant sold the television to one of his brothers for $50 and split the proceeds with Makowski.
After the court reporter transcribed the defendant’s statement, he was given the opportunity to read it. He read the first page out loud and made changes to it. The defendant initialed the changes and signed the statement along with a police officer and two assistant State’s Attorneys who were present. The defendant was subse*142quently charged by indictment with five counts of murder and one count each of armed robbery, residential burglary and burglary.
Prior to trial the defendant moved to quash his arrest for lack of probable cause and to suppress certain evidence, including his statement to police. The trial court denied the motions, finding that there was probable cause for the defendant’s arrest and that the defendant’s court-reported statement was freely and voluntarily given.
A jury subsequently found the defendant guilty on all charges and eligible for the death penalty. At the second stage of the sentencing hearing, the State introduced evidence of the defendant’s criminal history, which included prior convictions for battery, aggravated battery, attempted robbery, robbery, armed robbery, and burglary, and an extensive disciplinary record while an inmate with the Illinois Department of Corrections. In mitigation, the defendant elicited testimony of his mother, among others, who stated that she and the defendant’s father were alcoholics; that her son was a slow learner; and that she was a single mother who raised her 10 children while on public aid. According to the testimony of a social worker, the defendant’s parents had a history of mental illness and alcoholism; the defendant had an extensive history of drug and alcohol abuse; and the defendant grew up in an unstable and sometimes violent home.
The jury unanimously found that there were no mitigating circumstances sufficient to preclude the imposition of the death penalty, whereupon the trial court sentenced the defendant to death. This direct appeal followed.
II
The defendant raises 25 issues on appeal, challenging both his conviction and death sentence. We shall address each in turn.
*143The defendant first contends that (1) the trial court abused its discretion when it excluded a prospective juror for cause because the venire member indicated she was opposed to capital punishment. While a prospective juror cannot be removed for cause simply because he or she expresses a general objection to the death penalty (Witherspoon v. Illinois, 391 U.S. 510, 522, 20 L. Ed. 2d 776, 784-85, 88 S. Ct. 1770, 1777 (1968)), removal is proper where a juror’s views would prevent or substantially impair the performance of his duties as a juror (People v. Cole, 172 Ill. 2d 85, 99 (1996)). Whether such is the case is a matter within the trial court’s discretion. People v. Brown, 172 Ill. 2d 1, 33 (1996). During voir dire, the juror in question stated that her feelings about the death penalty would in fact affect her ability to find the defendant guilty:
“Court: *** [Wlould you consider the death penalty, you said you would if you thought it was appropriate? Would you sign—
Juror: That’s hard for me.
Court: Well-
Juror: Because I’m a mother, I’ve had kids but to pass down a judgment like that that’s like playing God and—
Court: You said you believe in the death penalty, I mean, you have no feelings against the death penalty?
Juror: I’m sorry.
Court: That’s all right. If appropriate, if the law and the facts call for it — we’ll qualify it. If you found him guilty and if you decided he should receive the death penalty would you sign the verdict form?
Juror: That makes me want to turn and walk away. I’m sorry. I don’t know. I don’t know how to answer that.
Court: Are you telling me that you couldn’t sign a death penalty in any case?
Juror: I don’t know. I really don’t know. I haven’t played God on television. Let somebody else.”
The standard for removal in this instance is whether a prospective juror’s views on capital punishment would *144prevent or substantially impair the performance of his or her duties as a juror. Cole, 172 Ill. 2d at 99; People v. Williams, 161 Ill. 2d 1, 54 (1994). It is clear that the juror in question expressed a profound reluctance to vote for a death sentence and she gave tentative, equivocal and even conflicting responses when asked her views on capital punishment. Accordingly, we conclude that the trial court did not abuse its discretion in excusing the juror.
Next the defendant contends that (2) the trial court abused its discretion in denying the defendant’s motion for a continuance on the grounds of potentially prejudicial pretrial publicity. Two days before jury selection began, a Chicago newspaper reported that an 11-year-old boy had killed an elderly woman by beating her with a cane and then cutting her throat. In his motion, the defendant asserted that the similar nature of the crime described in the article and the charges against the defendant would encourage the jury to convict him in an attempt to halt a perceived “epidemic” of violence against elderly women. The granting of a continuance is within the trial court’s discretion (People v. Williams, 173 Ill. 2d 48, 92 (1996)), and not all pretrial publicity necessarily leads to an unfair trial (Nebraska Press Ass’n v. Stuart, 427 U.S. 539, 554, 49 L. Ed. 2d 683, 695, 96 S. Ct. 2791, 2800 (1976); People v. Taylor, 101 Ill. 2d 377, 386 (1984)). The issue is whether the jury has the ability to lay aside its impressions and reach a verdict based on the evidence presented at trial. People v. Coleman, 168 Ill. 2d 509, 547 (1995). It strains credulity to assume that the jury here was prejudiced against the defendant by reports of an unrelated crime. Chicago is a big city; its newspapers regularly report on a variety of crimes. Thus, the trial court did not abuse its discretion in denying the defendant’s motion.
Now the defendant argues for the first time that the *145trial court should have inquired during voir dire whether any of the jurors had read or heard about the similar crime. During voir dire, however, the defendant never requested that the trial court make such an inquiry, nor did he object to the trial court’s failure to make such an inquiry. For an issue to be preserved on appeal, a contemporaneous objection must be made at trial and in a subsequent post-trial motion. People v. Enoch, 122 Ill. 2d 176, 186 (1988). In failing to do so here, the defendant has waived this issue.
The defendant argues (3) that the trial court abused its discretion when it overruled the defendant’s objection to the State’s rebuttal closing argument that the defendant treated his victim like a baby seal, because this argument inflamed the passions of the jury. Prosecutors, however, are afforded wide latitude in closing argument, and even improper remarks do not merit reversal unless they result in substantial prejudice to the defendant. People v. Kitchen, 159 Ill. 2d 1, 38 (1994). Nevertheless, prosecutors may not engage in inflammatory arguments designed solely to arouse the passions of the jury. People v. Johnson, 119 Ill. 2d 119, 139 (1987). A trial court’s determination regarding the propriety of closing arguments will not be disturbed absent an abuse of discretion. People v. Byron, 164 Ill. 2d 279, 295 (1995). In its closing argument, the defense asserted that the defendant did not have an intent to kill. The State responded in rebuttal:
“Prosecution: He didn’t have to kill her. He chose to kill her, though.
When he was striking her with that cane, one can only imagine how loud her screams could have been for anybody to hear her. Because, Folks, I would submit to you that she’s on that concrete floor long before that— long before that last blow was struck. He was treating her like she was a baby seal and this guy was competing for poacher of the year.
Defense: Objection, Judge.
Court: Overruled.
*146Prosecution: Intent to kill? You better believe it. Every time he struck that woman with that cane, his intent was quite clear. At the very least what he knew was, those acts he knew that he was killing her at the very least created a strong probability of death or great bodily harm.
To determine intent you look to his actions. And you’ll be able to answer that question.”
Closing arguments must be viewed in their entirety, and remarks must be viewed in context. Kitchen, 159 Ill. 2d at 38. From the context, it is clear that the prosecution’s remarks were not improper; rather, they were designed to rebut the defense claim that the defendant lacked an intent to kill. Prosecutors may respond to comments by the defense that clearly invite a response. Kitchen, 159 Ill. 2d at 39. The language and imagery used by the prosecution to describe the defendant’s conduct was not a personal attack on the defendant, and was scarcely more prejudicial than a clinical rendition of the cold facts. Therefore, the prosecution’s remarks did not deny the defendant a fair trial and the trial court did not abuse its discretion in overruling the defendant’s objection.
The defendant complains that (4) the trial court erred in denying the defendant’s request that the jury be instructed that the testimony of narcotics addicts should be subject to close scrutiny and that “the law recognizes that narcotics addicts become habitual liars.” The defense cross-examined prosecution witness Ronald Armstrong on his addiction to drugs and alcohol. While parties must be allowed to cross-examine witnesses on the issue of drug use (People v. Strother, 53 Ill. 2d 95, 99 (1972)), it is not required that a trial court instruct the jury on the unreliability of testimony by narcotics addicts (People v. Adams, 109 Ill. 2d 102, 123 (1985)). It is the function of the jury, not the trial court, to determine the credibility of witnesses. While the defense was free to argue the issue of Ronald Armstrong’s credibility in light *147of his drug addiction, it was not entitled to a jury instruction on the issue.
The defendant contends that (5) the trial court abused its discretion when it allowed morgue and crime scene photographs to go to the jury during its deliberations. Specifically, the defendant argues that whatever probative value the photographs had was outweighed by their potentially prejudicial effect. The responsibility of weighing the probative value and potentially prejudicial effect of photographic evidence rests within the discretion of the trial court. People v. Brown, 172 Ill. 2d 1, 40-41 (1996). Even gruesome or disgusting photographs may be properly admitted into evidence if they are relevant to establish any fact at issue in the case. People v. Lucas, 132 Ill. 2d 399, 439 (1989). Here the photographs showed, among other things, the shattered pieces of the victim’s skull. These photographs demonstrated the extent and severity of the injuries suffered by the victim — a valid purpose for admitting such evidence. See Brown, 172 Ill. 2d at 41; Kitchen, 159 Ill. 2d at 35. Furthermore, these photographs countered the defense argument that the defendant did not have an intent to kill by depicting the manner in which Smigiel had been beaten. Accordingly, these photographs were highly probative toward establishing intent, and the trial court did not abuse its discretion in permitting them to go to the jury. People v. Williams, 165 Ill. 2d 51, 64 (1995).
The defendant argues that (6) there was insufficient evidence to convict him of armed robbery because (a) there was no property taken from the person or presence of the deceased and (b) the jury may have relied on this improper conviction in finding him eligible for the death penalty. Armed robbery is the taking of property from the person or presence of another by use of force or by threatening the imminent use of force, while armed with a dangerous weapon. 720 ILCS 5/18 — 2, 18 — 1 (West *1481996). The property taken does not have to be within the victim’s immediate control as long as there is some concurrence between the defendant’s threat of force .and the taking of the victim’s property. People v. Blake, 144 Ill. 2d 314, 320 (1991); People v. Lewis, 165 Ill. 2d 305, 339 (1995). The defendant’s argument here is misplaced. The defendant took the victim’s cane from her by force and beat her to death with it; then he proceeded to her apartment and took her television set. On these facts, there is a clear concurrence between the defendant’s use of force and his taking of Smigiel’s television set; and any rational trier of fact could have found the essential elements of armed robbery beyond a reasonable doubt. See Jackson v. Virginia, 443 U.S. 307, 319, 61 L. Ed. 2d 560, 573, 99 S. Ct. 2781, 2789 (1979). Accordingly, there was sufficient evidence to convict the defendant of armed robbery and the jury could properly consider this conviction during the death eligibility phase of the trial.
The defendant complains that (7) the trial court abused its discretion in not allowing the defense to argue in the eligibility phase whether the murder occurred in the course of an armed robbery. During the eligibility phase, the defense argued to the jury:
“You also have to consider in considering whether there was a felony murder sequence of events here. All the evidence indicates that first there was this beating and the killing of Marion Smigiel. Then there was the taking of property.”
The trial court subsequently sustained the prosecution’s objection to the above-quoted argument and directed the jury to disregard it. Was this an abuse of discretion? No. While an attorney is afforded wide latitude in making arguments, he may not misstate the law. People v. Williams, 161 Ill. 2d 1, 49 (1994); People v. Buckley, 282 Ill. App. 3d 81, 89 (1996). The “sequence of events” here, i.e., the fact that the armed robbery may not have been completed until after the death of the victim, is of no *149legal significance. See People v. Flores, 128 Ill. 2d 66, 97 (1989) (holding that it was immaterial that the armed robbery did not commence prior to the fatal gunshots). The defense was permitted to and did argue to the jury that the murder did not occur in the course of a felony. The defense argument on the sequence of events, however, constituted a misstatement of law, and thus the trial court did not abuse its discretion in sustaining the prosecution’s objection.
The defendant argues that (8) the trial court erred in the eligibility phase when it instructed the jury on the requisite elements of murder during the course of a felony and failed to tender the proper verdict forms. The tendered verdict form was not a special verdict form, but instead was the standard Illinois Pattern Jury Instructions (IPI) general verdict form which is appropriate where only one statutory aggravating factor is at issue. See People v. Mack, 167 Ill. 2d 525, 538 (1995). The verdict form found the defendant “eligible for a death sentence” and that “the statutory aggravating factor exists.” The wrinkle here has to do with the jury instructions. At the eligibility phase of the death penalty hearing, the trial court instructed the jury:
“Before the Defendant may be found eligible for a death sentence under the law, the State must prove the following propositions:
First: That the Defendant was 18 years old or older at the time of the commission of the murder of which he was found guilty at the trial of the case, and
Second: That the following statutory aggravating factors exist:
The murdered person was killed in the course of another felony if the murdered person was actually killed by the Defendant; and the other felony was one or more of the following: armed robbery, residential burglary or burglary.”
The defendant contends that the trial court improperly instructed the jury because it neglected to instruct the *150jury that the State must prove that the defendant “acted with the intent to kill the murdered individual or with the knowledge that his acts created a strong probability of death or great bodily harm to the murdered individual.” 720 ILCS 5/9 — 1(b)(6)(b) (West 1996). At sentencing, the State sought to have the defendant declared eligible for the death penalty based on the felony murder provision contained in section 9 — 1(b)(6) of the Criminal Code of 1961, which provides:
“(b) Aggravating Factors. A defendant who at the time of the commission of the offense has attained the age of 18 or more and who has been found guilty of first degree murder may be sentenced to death if:
* * *
(6) the murdered individual was killed in the course of another felony if:
(a) the murdered individual:
(i) was actually killed by the defendant, or
(ii) received physical injuries personally inflicted by the defendant ***; and
(b) *** the defendant acted with the intent to kill the murdered individual or with the knowledge that his acts created a strong probability of death or great bodily harm to the murdered individual or another-, and
(c) the other felony was one of the following: [armed robbery, robbery, burglary].” (Emphasis added.) 720 ILCS 5/9 — 1(b)(6) (West 1996).
Illinois Pattern Jury Instructions, Criminal, No. 7B.07(6) (3d ed. 1992), tracks the language of the statute and provides that the culpable mental state must be proven in order to find a defendant eligible for the death penalty.
When compared with the statute and the IPI instruction, it is clear that the complained-of instruction in this case did not contain the requisite language regarding the defendant’s culpable mental state. A majority of this court has held that a defendant’s death sentence must be *151vacated where “[a]n essential element which the State was required to prove in order to establish the existence of the sixth aggravating factor — a culpable mental state— was not included in the instruction to the jury.” People v. Ramey, 151 Ill. 2d 498, 545 (1992). In Ramey, however, the defendant had objected to the deficient instruction and preserved the issue on appeal. The defendant in this case failed to do this. A defendant must object to alleged errors at trial and include the objection in a post-trial motion in order to preserve the issue for appellate review. Enoch, 122 Ill. 2d at 186.
This waiver doctrine, however, is not absolute; Supreme Court Rule 615(a) provides that plain errors affecting substantial rights may be reviewed on appeal, though not objected to at trial or in a post-trial motion.3 134 Ill. 2d R. 615(a). In criminal cases, plain error may be invoked where the evidence is closely balanced or the error was of such magnitude that the accused was deprived of a substantial right and denied a fair trial. People v. Bean, 137 Ill. 2d 65, 80 (1990). Neither element is satisfied here. The evidence of the defendant’s guilt is overwhelming, including the defendant’s own statement which corroborated the other evidence presented at trial. It is clear from the record that the defendant intended to kill his victim: he beat her to death with her cane, smash*152ing her skull into three pieces. Moreover, the sentencing jury was instructed on the issue of the defendant’s intent at the guilt phase of the trial. The same jury returned a general verdict finding the defendant guilty of murder. Such a general verdict raises the presumption that the jury found that the defendant committed the most serious crime alleged — intentional murder. People v. Thompkins, 121 Ill. 2d 401, 456 (1988). Accordingly, the trial court’s erroneous instructions during the eligibility phase and the tendered general verdict form did not deprive the defendant of a fair trial. Thus, there exists no plain error to excuse the waiver.
The defendant argues next that (9) the trial court abused its discretion in admitting into evidence at the eligibility phase of the death penalty hearing the same crime scene and morgue photographs that the court admitted during the guilt phase of the trial. For the reasons discussed above at (5), the trial court did not abuse its discretion.
The defendant contends that (10) the trial court abused its discretion in sustaining various prosecution objections and restricting Dr. George Savarese, a1 social worker, from testifying about, among other things, the defendant’s genetic predisposition to alcoholism. Although the rules of evidence are relaxed in a sentencing hearing, the evidence offered in the aggravation-mitigation phase of a death penalty hearing must be both relevant and reliable. People v. Free, 94 Ill. 2d 378, 426 (1983); People v. Brisbon, 106 Ill. 2d 342, 364-65 (1985). Relevancy determinations are, of course, within the sound discretion of the trial court. Free, 94 Ill. 2d at 426-27. Here the trial court sustained the prosecution’s objections to Savarese’s testimony on (a) the history of mental problems in the defendant’s family; (b) the existence of a genetic predisposition to alcoholism; (c) whether other members of the defendant’s family suffered from mental *153retardation; (d) the implications of mental retardation; and (e) the defendant’s ability to adapt to prison life. On the issue of the history of mental illness, the trial court did allow Savarese to testify “as a licensed social worker and not as a doctor or psychiatrist.” The trial court would not let him testify regarding the mental health of the defendant’s brother because his disorder was undiagnosed and the only evidence of any disorder was that the defendant’s brother was discharged from the Marines after five weeks. In response to this vague and inconclusive testimony, the trial court stated:
“I strike that as not being any evidence at this point for mental illness of [the defendant’s brother]. If you don’t know and [the family doesn’t] know, I don’t know how we could come to that conclusion.”
On the issue of the genetic predisposition to alcoholism, the trial court found that Savarese was not qualified to offer an opinion on genetics. Similarly, the trial court ruled that Savarese could not testify whether the defendant suffered from an organic brain disorder, noting that he “is a social worker, not a doctor.” The trial court properly sustained the prosecution’s objections to questions involving the history of mental retardation in the defendant’s family. Savarese’s investigation focused on the defendant — not his family — and speculative testimony regarding the health of the defendant’s family would shed little if any light upon the defendant’s character and the nature of his crime. Likewise, questions regarding the implications of mental retardation were of dubious relevance. Moreover, the defendant never made a formal offer of proof, which is a prerequisite to appellate review. People v. Peeples, 155 Ill. 2d 422, 457 (1993). Finally, on the question of the defendant’s ability to adapt to prison life, Savarese had no particular expertise regarding prison life and had not reviewed in any detail the defendant’s extensive 14-year prison record. In sustaining the prosecution’s objections in each of *154these instances, the trial court sought to exclude unreliable or irrelevant evidence or to preclude the witness from offering testimony beyond his expertise. Therefore, the trial court did not abuse its discretion in sustaining prosecution objections to Savarese’s testimony.
The defendant argues that (11) the trial court erred in granting the prosecution’s motion in limine to preclude the defense from introducing evidence at the eligibility phase of the sentence and plea agreement of the codefendant, Richard Makowski. The defendant contends that the jury should have been able to consider such evidence and whether imposition of the death penalty would have been disproportionally harsh in comparison to Makowski’s 60-year prison sentence. The focus of a sentencing hearing, however, is the defendant’s “character and the circumstances of his offense.” People v. Jimerson, 127 Ill. 2d 12, 53 (1989). This court has specifically ruled that introduction of such evidence is neither constitutionally mandated nor relevant to the jury’s examination of the individual defendant’s character and offense: “requiring the sentencer to examine and compare the relative culpability of the defendants and the circumstances in aggravation and mitigation applicable to each would unnecessarily complicate an already difficult task.” People v. Page, 156 Ill. 2d 258, 272 (1993). Thus, the trial court did not err in granting the prosecution’s motion in limine.
The defendant contends that the trial court abused its discretion in excluding testimony from (12) the defendant’s sister regarding the death penalty’s effect on the defendant’s family and (13) the defendant’s mother regarding her other children’s problems at school and with the law and on “the condition of the furniture” in the family’s home. Again, the focus of a sentencing hearing is on the defendant’s character and the crime he committed. Jimerson, 127 Ill. 2d at 53. While the rules of ev*155idence are “relaxed” during a sentencing hearing, they are not simply thrown out the window: the evidence offered must still be both relevant and reliable. People v. Johnson, 146 Ill. 2d 109, 152 (1991). The excluded testimony was wholly tangential to the defendant’s character and the nature of his offense. Clearly the trial court was within its discretion in excluding such testimony.
The defendant next complains (14) that the trial court abused its discretion when it sustained the prosecution’s objection to defense questions of a psychiatrist regarding the effects of the drug Mellaril on a person suffering from a psychosis. The defense did elicit testimony that during the time the defendant was prescribed Mellaril, the defendant’s behavior in prison improved. The trial court, however, sustained the prosecution’s objection to questions on the effect Mellaril would have on a psychotic person because the questions assumed a fact not in evidence: there is no evidence that the defendant was a diagnosed psychotic. Subsequently, the defense made no offer of proof: “[w]hen a trial court refuses evidence, no appealable issue remains unless a formal offer of proof is made.” Peeples, 155 Ill. 2d at 457. The purpose of requiring an offer of proof as a prerequisite to appellate review is to enable the reviewing court to determine whether the exclusion of the evidence was proper. People v. Andrews, 146 Ill. 2d 413, 421 (1992). By neglecting to make a formal offer of proof, the defendant has waived the issue. Peeples, 155 Ill. 2d at 458.
The defendant argues that the trial court abused its discretion in permitting (15) Cameron Forbes, the custodian of records at the Illinois Department of Corrections, to testify regarding the defendant’s prison disciplinary record while incarcerated because such records were unreliable, and (16) Sergeant Joseph Knowles, a member of the Inmate Disciplinary Board, to testify as *156to the defendant’s disciplinary record while at the Cook County jail awaiting trial because these records contained unreliable hearsay. With regard to Forbes’ and Knowles’ testimony on the defendant’s disciplinary records, the defense did not object at trial and did not include the issues in the defendant’s post-trial motion. For an issue to be preserved on appeal, an objection must be raised at trial and in a post-trial motion. Turner, 128 Ill. 2d at 555. Thus, these issues are waived. Moreover, there is no plain error. This court has held that the contents of a prison incident report are admissible during the penalty phase of a sentencing hearing:
“ ‘[0]ur death penalty statute allows the introduction of evidence during the sentencing hearing that would not ordinarily be admissible during the guilt phase of a trial. [Citations.] The factors controlling the admissibility of evidence at a capital sentencing hearing are relevance and reliability, and the determination of admissibility rests in the discretion of the trial court. [Citations.] Hearsay testimony will not per se be deemed to be inadmissible at a sentencing hearing as denying a defendant’s right to confront witnesses. [Citations.]’ ” People v. Ward, 154 Ill. 2d 272, 329 (1992), quoting People v. Hall, 114 Ill. 2d 376, 416-17 (1986).
The defendant contends that (17) the trial court abused its discretion in permitting Forbes to testify that he had never seen a disciplinary record worse than the defendant’s. The defendant did object to this testimony, but only because the prosecution was putatively using “an incomplete set of reports” to establish the defendant’s conduct while incarcerated. In any event, Illinois law permits a lay witness to “express opinion based on his observations where it is difficult or impossible for [the witness] to reproduce for the jury the totality of the conditions perceived and where the opinion given is one that men in general are accustomed to, and capable of, making, comprehending, and understanding.” People v. *157 Sprinkle, 74 Ill. App. 3d 456, 464-65 (1979). Here Forbes testified:
“At the Joliet Correctional Center we take in 450 inmates a week. I have been there for sixteen years and I have never seen anybody with a worse disciplinary record than Donald Armstrong.”
Forbes testified that he is the custodian of such records for the Department of Corrections, and thus he was testifying about matters within his knowledge. His testimony was qualitative in nature and conveyed probative information concerning the defendant’s behavior while incarcerated — a relevant issue at the sentencing hearing. Thus, the trial court did not abuse its discretion.
The defendant complains that (18) the trial court abused its discretion and he was denied a fair sentencing hearing because the prosecution’s closing argument misrepresented defense counsel’s argument, misstated evidence, and improperly impugned the role of defense counsel. “It is axiomatic that parties in closing argument may not go beyond the scope of the evidence presented and facts fairly inferable therefrom [citation], misstate the law [citation], or express their personal opinions on the evidence [citation], or on defendant’s guilt [citation].” People v. Williams, 161 Ill. 2d 1, 78 (1994). Arguments designed to play on the jurors’ emotions are improper, but all depend on context. Williams, 161 Ill. 2d at 78; Kitchen, 159 Ill. 2d at 38. The complained-of comments here, however, when viewed in their complete context, are not of the kind to so inflame the passions of the jury as to implicate the defendant’s right to a fair sentencing hearing. First, in rebuttal to the defense argument regarding the jury’s responsibility to follow the law and its role in sentencing, the prosecutor remarked:
“Responsibility. Apparently an absolute and total foreign concept to the Defense. They are the ones who told you Donald Armstrong, he is not responsible for the murder. Wrong.
*158* * *
They are the ones who told you he was not responsible. He is not eligible for the death penalty. Wrong.
And now they have the audacity to suggest that you are killing a human being. To compare your actions with his actions? Absolutely, totally, 100 percent unequivocally wrong.
Because ladies and gentlemen, the one obligation that you do have that you swore to us that you would uphold is the obligation to follow the law, the one thing that Donald Armstrong had never ever ever done.”
There is nothing improper in these remarks, which were in response to an issue raised by the defense. Kitchen, 159 Ill. 2d at 39.
Next the defendant claims that the prosecution misrepresented the defense argument when it argued to the jury:
“Someone once said all it takes for evil to thrive is for good men to do nothing. That is what they are suggesting you should do — nothing. To give him what he wants.
Don’t give him what he wants. Give him what he deserves, what he has earned, what he has spent the better part of an entire lifetime developing and nurturing, the hostility, viciousness and vileness to end human life under no auspices of law.”
The defendant, however, has failed to preserve this issue for appeal because he failed to object to this argument at trial and to raise the issue in his post-trial motion. Turner, 128 Ill. 2d at 555. Moreover, even had the defendant raised the issue, the prosecution’s argument was within the proper scope as to what was the appropriate sanction for this particular crime. The defendant also claims that the prosecution mischaracterized facts when it argued that only Dr. Linda Wetzel, a neuropsychologist, testified that the defendant was mentally retarded. The defendant observes that there was evidence from the defendant’s mother and teacher that the defendant was a slow learner. The defendant has waived this issue by failing to raise this objection below, and in any event, the *159record demonstrates that the prosecution’s remark was accurate: Wetzel was the only psychologist who classified the defendant as mentally retarded. On this same issue, the defendant complains of a prosecution remark that the defendant did not call Dr. Albert Stipes, a psychiatrist employed by the Psychiatric Institute of the circuit court of Cook County, to testify on the issue of mental retardation because “they probably wouldn’t have particularly liked the answer they would have gotten.” The defendant failed to raise this issue in his post-trial motion, and thus has waived it.
The defendant contends that the prosecution improperly argued in its opening statement that the facts surrounding the defendant’s crime were “so bad that if Donald Armstrong were to find a cure for cancer on the same day he took a bullet for the President, that still wouldn’t be enough” to warrant a sentence less than death. Again, the defendant failed to object during the sentencing hearing to this remark, and thus has waived it.
Finally, the defendant asserts that the prosecution impugned the role of defense counsel when it argued:
“How easy it must be and what a criminal justice system we have when a man can have that type of criminal history, have those acts behind him, have that brutality in his background and have lawyers who stand up here and be able to argue—
* * *
*** —it’s not his fault. No, it’s society’s fault. It is his environment’s fault. It is his teacher’s fault. And it is going to be your fault. How easy it must be to stand up here [sic] do that.
Well, folks, our entire system of a civilized society rests upon the notion of responsibility. And Donald Armstrong must be held to the same standards that each of us are.”
Viewed in context, the prosecution’s remarks were not an attack on the defense counsel, but rather an attempt to characterize the manner in which the defendant chose *160to explain away his criminal history. As with the other allegations of error with regard to the prosecution’s argument, we conclude that the trial court did not abuse its discretion in overruling the defendant’s objection. Moreover, we are persuaded that the complained-of comments were accurate statements of the evidence and proper responses to the defense case. Finally, in view of the trial court’s careful and complete admonitions to the jury to decide the case on the evidence and only the evidence and not on sympathy or prejudice, we conclude that the defendant received a fair sentencing hearing.
The defendant argues that (19) the trial court erred in denying the defendant’s motion for discovery of the evidence the prosecution intended to introduce in aggravation at the sentencing hearing. This court, however, has held that discovery of evidence in aggravation is “not constitutionally required.” People v. Foster, 119 Ill. 2d 69, 102 (1987); see also People v. Guest, 166 Ill. 2d 381, 406 (1995); People v. Williams, 147 Ill. 2d 173, 264 (1991). Accordingly, the trial court did not err.
The defendant complains that (20) the admission of hearsay testimony during his sentencing hearing violated his right to confrontation. Hearsay evidence, however, is admissible at sentencing hearings where the evidence is relevant and reliable (People v. Hall, 114 Ill. 2d 376, 416-17 (1986)) and does not violate a defendant’s right to confront witnesses (People v. Young, 128 Ill. 2d 1, 54 (1989)).
The defendant argues that (21) the trial court erred when it refused to instruct the jury with a non-IPI instruction proffered by the defendant which listed several nonstatutory mitigating factors. This court, however, hás held that nonstatutory mitigating factors need not be specified in an instruction to the jury when, as here, the jury is instructed that it may consider any relevant mitigation factor not specified in the instruction. People v. Jackson, 145 Ill. 2d 43, 114 (1991).
*161The defendant contends that (22) the factors in mitigation substantially outweighed the factors in aggravation. Specifically, the defendant cites his “dysfunctional family” and poverty which “deprived him of the opportunity for development of the kind of moral responsibility expected of citizens.” This court has held that the decisions of a capital sentencing jury will not be overturned lightly, particularly where that decision is amply supported by the record. People v. Hooper, 172 Ill. 2d 64, 77 (1996). After reviewing the record in this case, including the brutality of the crime as well as the defendant’s extensive and violent criminal history, we conclude that the facts support the sentencing jury’s determination.
The defendant raises two challenges to the IPI instructions alleging that (23) the instructions are ambiguous and inadequate to guide the jury in capital cases, and (24) the instructions are unconstitutional because they contain the phrase “no mitigating factors sufficient to preclude the imposition of the death sentence,” which could cause a juror to erroneously believe that he or she must find that more than one mitigating factor exists before voting for a sentence other than death. The defendant, however, never objected to the instructions at trial, offered alternative instructions or included an objection to the instructions in his post-trial motion. Accordingly, the issues are waived. Moreover, this court has already held that the IPI instructions in death penalty cases adequately guide the jury (People v. Brown, 172 Ill. 2d 1, 55-56 (1996) (IPI instructions are constitutionally sound); People v. Franklin, 167 Ill. 2d 1, 29 (1995) (same)) and that the instructions apprise the jurors that the existence of any one mitigating factor is sufficient to preclude a death sentence (cf. People v. Smith, 176 Ill. 2d 217, 260 (1997)).
Finally, the defendant argues that (25) the Illinois death penalty statute is unconstitutional on 12 grounds. *162This court has already decided each of the issues raised by the defendant. See, e.g., People v. Gaines, 88 Ill. 2d 342, 369 (1981) (pretrial notice of intent to seek death penalty is not constitutionally mandated); People v. Orange, 121 Ill. 2d 364, 390 (1988) (the statutory grant of prosecutorial discretion in deciding whether to seek the death penalty is not unconstitutional and the statute does not place an improper burden on the defendant to establish that a noncapital sentence should be imposed); People v. Albanese, 104 Ill. 2d 504, 541-42 (1984) (statute provides sufficient information-gathering procedures to insure adequate appellate review); People v. Perez, 108 Ill. 2d 70, 97 (1985) (statute is not unconstitutional because it does not provide a means to assure that all aggravating factors are relevant and permissible; the reviewing court may examine the evidence for relevancy); People v. Lewis, 88 Ill. 2d 129, 144-46 (1981) (statutory aggravating factor “no significant history of prior criminal history” is neither vague nor overly broad); People v. Spreitzer, 123 Ill. 2d 1, 43 (1988) (instructions do not preclude the jurors from making a “reasoned moral response” to the defendant’s background, character and crime (emphasis omitted)); People v. St. Pierre, 146 Ill. 2d 494, 520 (1992) (statute sufficiently minimizes the risk against the arbitrary and capricious imposition of the death penalty); People v. Gilliam, 172 Ill. 2d 484, 522 (1996) (statute is not invalid because it allows the sentencer to consider nonstatutory aggravating factors); People v. Stewart, 123 Ill. 2d 368, 377-82 (1988) (fact that prosecutorial discretion may be exercised unevenly by different prosecutors does not render the statute unconstitutional); People v. Page, 155 Ill. 2d 232, 282-83 (1993) (it is not unconstitutional to allow the prosecution both initial and rebuttal arguments in the capital sentencing hearing). We decline to overrule our prior decisions and continue to adhere to our holdings on these issues.
*163III
For the reasons stated, the judgment of the circuit court of Cook County is affirmed. The clerk of this court is directed to enter an order setting Tuesday, May 12, 1998, as the date on which the sentence of death entered in the circuit court of Cook County is to be carried out. The defendant shall be executed in the manner provided by law. 725 ILCS 5/119 — 5 (West 1996). The clerk of this court shall send a certified copy of the mandate in this case to the Director of Corrections, to the warden of Stateville Correctional Center, and to the warden of the institution where the defendant is confined.
Affirmed.